PRACTICAL REPORT ON THE ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF CODEINE AND PARACETAMOL Essay

Codeine or methyl morphine, an alkaloid, was for the first time isolated in 1832 from raw opium. It concentration ranges from 0.2% to 0.8%. Mostly used for its analgesic, anti-tussive and anti-diarrheal capabilities (Tremlett, Anderson and Wolf, 2010). Paracetamol withal known as acetaminophen (n-acetyl-p-aminophenol, APAP) on the other hand, is a useful non- steroidal anti- inflammatory drug (NSAID). It is commonly used in the management of pain and fever in a variety of patients (Kamberi, et al., 2004).Fig 1 CodeineNCBI, 2009 Fig 2 AcetaminophenNCBI, 2009 One of the technique involved in the extraction of codeine and paracetamol from its matrix, is the root extraction otherwise known as liquid liquid extraction. This process entails the use of two immiscible liquids usually put out and water in dissolving the sample for two distinctive layers to form after the mixture had been thoroughly agitate together (Rubinson and Rubinson, 1998). Separating the components of the extrac t, is done through the use of adulterate Layer Chromatography. It is one of the standard procedures used in some(prenominal) forensic laboratory when analysizing unknown drugs or mixtures (Howlett and Steiner, 2011). Separation of the mixtures occur based on the pH, polarity of its components, solvent and the rationalize layer stationary physical body (Howlett and Steiner, 2011).METHODSThe finely divided sample was dissolved in 20ml of di calmed water. This was thence basified with NaOH solution to pH 12 using litmus paper. The resulting solution was later filtered. 1.0ml of chloroform was pipetted into the filtrate. afterwards shaken and combined, two distinctive layers was detect. The bottom layer was extracted thrice using a micro- pipette. On a thin chromatography plate, five spots were placed ( as shown in remand 2) and theplate was readyed using chloroform/methanol. This was later visualized with dragendorffs reagent under the UV light. All separated components were o bserved, identified and recorded. RESULTSTable of observed pHSOLUTIONInitial pHFinal pHBasified sample1012 dining table 1Table of Retention factor (RF value)Rf = Distance traveled by the bone marrow (cm) Distance travelled by the solvent (cm) SUBSTANCEDistance travelled by aggregate (cm)Distance travelled by Solvent (cm)Retention factor value (Rf) Chloroform extract3.04.00.75Codeine positive examine3.04.00.75Paracetamol positive control4.04.01.00Chloroform (negative control) 3.54.00.86Diluted sample4.04.01.00TABLE 2DIAGRAMFig 3 The Developed Chromatographic Plate.DISCUSSIONRunning the chloroform extracts and cut sample together with two positive controls and a negative control on a virtuoso chromatographic plate simultaneously, the store factor(Rf) of five different samples were determined. The RF value of the chloroform extract(0.75) tallied with that of the codeine positive control and that of diluted sample(1.00) with the paracetamol positive control. This tentatively show s that, codeine and paracetamol were present in the sample. The solvent front(i.e distance travelled by the meld solvents) is 4cm, this is quite close to the distances covered by all separated components(between 3 3.5cm), which makes the retention factors, not a true representative of their actual set. It was later discovered that, this is due to not allowing thechromatographic plate to develop for a longer period of time in the solvent tank. The solvent front also dehydrated up quickly when the plate is taken out., making drawing a line at that orient quite difficult. Fortunately, this was overcome by the use of visualizing spray and UV lamp. Solvent extraction(liquid-liquid), involved selective reason of components of a substance in microgram to gram quantities between two immiscible liquid manakin its separation and selectivity is based on solubility differences and pH control respectively (Fifield and Kealey, 1995).This was observed when chloroform was added to the basifi ed filtrate. After vigorous shaking and settling down, chloroform being more dense, composed the bottom layer, with the aqueous phase up. Liquid-liquid extraction often involved high volume of organic solvents and poor resolution of mixtures of organic materials (Fifield and Kealey, 1995). deoxidize Layer Chromatography is usually employed in the qualitative analysis of mixtures of non-volatile compounds like pharmaceuticals (Skoog, et al., 2000). TLC can also be used to confirm the identity of an unknown sample ( Lewis and Evans, 2011). Dissolution of the codeine and paracetamol tablet in distilled water without weighing, shows that, TLC was never designed for semi- quantitative analysis. This is due to difficulties in reproducibly applying aliquots of the mixture to the plate and then recovering all of the separated components from the plate (Skoog, et al., 2000). CONCLUSION Using the Rf values obtained in the table 2 above and the visual indicator reaction with the substances un der the UV light, codeine was extracted to a high spirit level during the solvent extraction, tentatively identified by TLC (due to its positive control having the same Rf values with the chloroform extract(0.75) and both were the only one that were seen under the UV light) while paracetamol was extracted to a low floor (due to its positive control having the same Rf with the diluted sample). Multiple compounds can sh atomic number 18 the same retention factor(Rf) or produce similar chromophores when sprayed with detection reagents (Howlett and Steiner, 2011). The study by Lewis and Evans( 2011) shows that if a spot from an unknown substance is developed on a TLC plate together with a spot from a substance that is suspected to be the unknown, and the two substance are found to have the same Rf value, they are probably the same substance.FUTURE SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Due to the limitation that is associated with using TLC to exactly identify a given sample, minimum standar ds for drug testing and reporting in the forensic community are recommended by the Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of seized drugs (SWGDRUG) (Howlett and Steiner, 2011). In order for a drug identification to be confirmed to SWGDRUG specification, additional tests must includes, Infrared spectroscopy and GC-MS (Howlett and Steiner, 2011).REFERENCESFifield, F. W. and Kealey, D. 1995. Principles and Practice of Analytical chemistry. (4th ed) Glasgow, Blackie Academic and professional. Howlett, S. E. and Steiner, R. R. 2011. Validation of Thin Layer Chromatography with AccuTOF-DART Detection for Forensic Drug Analysis*. Forensic Sciences e-journal 56 (5), pp. 12611267. available through Anglia Ruskin University program library website http//libweb.anglia.ac.uk Accessed on 11 March 2014. Kamberi, M., Riley, C. M., Huang, C. C. and Xiaoyan, M, 2004. A validated, sensitive HPLC method for the determination of trace impurities in acetaminophen drug substance. Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis e-journal 34 (1), pp. 123128. Available through Anglia Ruskin University Library website http//libweb.anglia.ac.uk Accessed on 18 March 2014. Lewis, R. and Evans, W. 2011. Chemistry. 4th ed. Hampshire, Palgrave Macmillan. NCBI, 2009. National Library of Medicine. online Available at http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound Accessed 7 April, 2014. Rubinson, J. F. and Rubinson, K. A. 1998. Contemporary chemical analysis. speed Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall. Skoog, D., West, D., Holler, F. and Crouch, S. 2000. Analytical Chemistry- An introduction. (7th ed). Boca raton, Thomson Learning Inc. Tremlett, M., Anderson, B. J. and Wolf, A. 2010. Procon debate is codeine a drug that still has a useful role in pediatric practice? Pediatric Anesthesia e-journal 20 (2), pp. 183194. Available through Anglia Ruskin University website http//libweb.anglia.ac.uk Accessed on 29 March 2014.

Pleasure †Morality Essay

mill about is an heir of an intellectual movement in England known as Utilitarianism functionalism is concerned with the acquisition of pleasure and elimination of pain. John Stuart loiter postdates the guidelines of utilitarianism in order to decide if trusted actions argon moral. Utilitarianism states that a somebody should per habitus the action that produces the most pleasurable outcome for every person involved. In order to accurately judge if one pleasure is greater than another, the person must be transparent and have experienced both such judges will prefer the higher pleasures all over the lower ones.However, manufacturing plant recognizes that raft arent always driven to follow moral social standards, because the reasons merchantman their actions can be not and external but internal as well. What Mill agent is that expectations of us from our peers and from a higher being, such as God, do not obligate us to follow these rules set out by society it is our own fee ling within that holds us accountable to these standards. Lastly, Mill believes that in order to be a moral creature, we must obey the three fixs of utility 1) truth is understood as production of cheer, elimination of pain, 2) for all of those concerned with the action, and 3) each counts for one and no more than than one. Utilitarians believe that a persons actions are right if they produce happiness the greatest happiness of greatest number,(Denise, Peterfreund, and White, p. 158). Michael, Peter and Samir are employees at Initech and are planning scamming the company by installing a computer virus that skims money out of the companys bank account. Mill would look at this action by looking at the conditions of utilitarianism.Although they meet the first criteria of producing happiness by dint of the elimination of pain by acquiring large amounts of money, they do not meet part deuce or three. In regards to part two, it does produce happiness for the ones directly performing the scam but it indirectly affects the other members working for Initech as well as stakeholders and therefore causes pain for those indirectly affected. Lastly, the third condition to count for one and only one is not met because a lot of passel are involved. Mill also considers that in order for an action to be moral, it must come from within.Peter, being the leader of this scam, has no internal morals or considerations for those around him. Michael and Samir are only involved in this scam because they are the brains in this operation and it wouldnt be possible to perform this action otherwise. Mill believes that although people are motivated by their own desires and they shouldnt act on them. However, Peter, Michael, and Samir do just that. Mill thinks that when people are excessively fortunate that they are incapable of enjoying it because it only benefits themselves.This goes to show that their scam is immoral because it only directly increases their happiness due to their own self-interests. Also, Mill argues that a person with high capacities will adopt more to make him happy and therefore is capable of experiencing larger quantities of pain however, they still shouldnt appropriate this to lower their expectations and faculties. Although Peter has experienced a prolonged period of pain while working at Initech through tedious tasks and constant pressure from his eight bosses, this should not be a good plenty reason for him to affect others faculties and reduce their worth as human beings.Mill says, it is greater to be a man dissatisfied than a pig satisfied, (p. 162). In other words, Peter is not capable of experiencing the highest form of pleasure, and therefore chooses to increase the lower pleasures, lowering his existence in the world. Many people who start absent wanting everything which is moral sometimes turn to selfish measures. The reason why so many people end up becoming selfish is due to being in occupations that lower their aspirations of something greater which whitethorn be a reason why Michael, Peter, and Samir choose to go through with this scam.They are not unprejudiced judges because they do not know what higher pleasures consist of due to lack of opportunity. Considering all of these utilitarian schemes, Mill would argue that although on the surface Michael, Samir, and Peter seem to be acting immorally, they could possibly be unable to accurately judge both the higher and lower pleasures because they were not capable of enjoying the higher pleasures.

Legal Thinking, Legal Logic, and Legal Philosophy Essay

Legal Thinking, Legal Logic, and Legal Philosophy - Essay Example construe the law from different perspectives is a better approach to achieving justice. When using the constructive approach, interpretation of the law is more(prenominal) realistic because of its application to the specific situation at hand.Legal realism is the most appropriate good philosophy for front-line supervisors in my profession. Notably, Holmes, who was a famous jurist in the United States Supreme Court, developed the approach. match to legal realism, the law defines the righteousity of the society. For this reason, the law has the role of promoting, redirecting, as well as hindering moral views. Supervisors should rely on legal realism and consider the law as an effective system for divination of future outcomes if certain moral laws are broken (Posner, 2013). Moreover, supervisors who rely on legal realism do not let emotions confuse their analytical capability. Additionally, legal realism ensures tha t the supervisors do not base their judgments on their feelings, but rather condense on what is right. Legal realism promotes proactive behavior in supervisors who should focus on maintaining justice in all instances. Finally, legal realism ensures that supervisors can separate their opinions and emotions while devising effective legal

Ethics in Leadership Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Ethics in Leadership - Research Paper ExampleFor instance, harassing other workers is ethically wrong, and the decision to harass a cranny worker is completely unethical. A second example is that of using the internet supplied by the employer inappropriately, to browse extramarital content and for personally-benefiting uses (Kidwell & Kochanowski, 2005). The fact that the behavior of using the internet is inappropriate and the given employee will do that knowingly, gives the check needed to show that the decision to use it inappropriately was unethical. This paper will explore the reasons as to why good deal (at the oeuvre) make unethical decisions, with reference to their situation and environment. The paper will, also, explore the different ways, through which leaders can manage the individuals that engage in negative decision-making.With reference to the variety of the situations that surround the lives of individuals at the workplace, people will make unethical decisions for a wide array of reasons. The reasons behind the making of unethical decision-making is open on the rightness or the wrongness of behavior, in terms of the legal, organizational and the societal guidelines used in defining the morality of behaviors (Kidwell & Kochanowski, 2005, p.140). In the current world, unethical behaviors at the workplace have become relatively prevalent, and in round cases, the costs of deviance are high this has pushed managers to develop mechanisms to handle such behaviors. near of the factors explored in the next section as contributors to the making of unethical decisions are more applicable to some forms of decisions and deviance, than others (Peterson, 2002a). The reasons and the factors behind the making of unethical decisions can be traced to social, organizational, individual and interpersonal factors. The decision-making process of individuals within the workplace

What is the single most important issue to you that should be a top Essay

What is the single most important issue to you that should be a top priority in our national discourse Why - Essay ExampleCurrently, the issue is widely debated in the public and governmental arena in the US that how appropriate it is to allow civilians to keep arms with them. Follman argues that there is no rule in the belief that when more people are armed, there are better chances of stopping these tragic events. In fact, facts prove otherwise. In none of the cases any civilian ever intervened to stop the mass killing. redden if in a particular case any civilian did intervene, either they failed miserably to stop the killing or they themselves were harmed or killed. The fact remains that mass shooting has increased several fold in the US because it has been easier than ever before for anyone to carry guns in public places such as movie theaters, parks, schools (Follman).It canful be noticed that casualty score is much higher in 2012, especially due to sandy Hook and Aurora t heater incidents. It is a fact that American society has been heavily armed since its line of descent and private arms have been increasing at a rapid pace. Sales data founder that in 1995, 200 million guns were in self-command of the people in the US. In a untrimmed estimate, its number is now close to the total US population that means, on average, each citizen is in possession of some kind of a gun under the excuse of self-defense (Follman).National Rifle fellowship (NRA) is known in the US as a formidable pro-gun lobby and spends a lot in support of politicians for its cause. NRA also organizes for firearms safety training and tournaments across all parts of the US. Most states also spy the NRA trained instructors by law. While NRA proposes in the defense of law-abiding citizens and against the crime makers, it takes a hardliner insure whenever a debate spurs about enacting any gun control measures.As Kucinich reports, NRA has been mounting pressure on lawmakers through

DBR LAB Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

DBR - Lab Report Examplee such that sections of the pavement be not wedge shapejected to excessive deformation that would otherwise result in settlement of the section or localized deformation. ace of the empirical methods used in the design of pavements is the California bearing ratio test abbreviated as cosmic microwave background radiation test.CBR value is determined by carrying out a CBR test on the subgrade turd. The CBR value depicts an index that shows the primer coat bearing capacity and the soil strength. Using the CBR value, sub base and base stuff of a pavement to be constructed can be easily intentional (Knapton). Using the CBR value, evaluations of the strengths of the soils can be established by using CBR value as an indicator. The CBR value typically represents a percentage of the soil with a standard crushed soil from California. Ultimately, the CBR value is in the first place used in the quantification of the response of the subgrade and pavement to loadin g (Indian Institute of engine room Kanpur).There are various factors that affect the CBR test. These include the soil density, the soil texture and the soil moisture. Thus, the testing procedure to be used for a specific CBR test is completely subordinate on the material type being tested. A drawback to the CBR test is that it gives the total thickness of material to be applied above the subgrade. The thickness is constant for a particular pavement irrespective of the materials that are used in the construction of the layers (Yoder and Witczak).In the California bearing Ration test, the objectives are the determination of the CBR value of the soil that is being considered to be used as a foundation of a pavements. This is mainly done to facilitate the evaluation of the subgrade soil strength (Purushothama). It should be noted that CBR does not declare oneself information about the soil properties such as cohesion shearing resistance etc.4.5 Kg of the essay to be tested was colle cted from the field. A soil sample was then taken from this sample a compacted in a CBR mould in 3

Women, Sex, Role and culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Women, Sex, Role and market-gardening - Essay ExampleAmong the dedicated writers allow in Brettell and Sargent, who are inclining their get going towards modern topics in anthropology. Most of their works are designed in a manner that deems appropriate for scholars at various levels of their studies. In this essay, we will appraise one epochal topic at bottom the field of anthropology, and subsequently relate Brettell and Sargents work to ideologies contained within the underlying topics. Fortunately, the writers work takes an accessible and open-ended approach in covering a subject matter. Therefore, we will have to turn out an objective link between theses contained in the primary readings and that of selected essay from the two writers mentioned above. Primary Reading pagan Solidarity of Maasai Women In the first primary ethnographic reading, we will explore the role of gender among Maasai women in Kenya. at bottom the reading, the writer Llewlyn Melissa analyses two cont exts of cultural solidarity observed among women in the Maasai fellowship. The underlying thesis statement within this reading is that Maasai women have over the past decades stood in solidarity to defend their gender roles within their societies. Despite infiltration of western ideologies into Kenyan tribes, Maasai have managed to preserve their traditions to date. They are nomadic pastoralists which mean that they move from one empower to a nonher in search of water and pasture for their domestic animals, especially cattle. Fortunately, their unique culture and propinquity to wildlife reserves attracts tourists and anthropologists. Currently, a small number of Maasai men and moderate women have been absorbed into white tierce jobs in the tourism sector (Llewlyn 209). However, majority of Maasai women and men are still subscribing to conventional roles as contained in their cultural norms. At this juncture, it is worth acknowledging the fact that Maasai culture is a patriarchal community dominated by men. Women within the Maasai tribe enjoy minimum opportunities, and faces numerous challenges form decisions made by their communities. As a battle array of solidarity to their patriarchal cultures, Maasai women still believes in early and forced marriages (Llewlyn 212). Parents show little interest in education of their girl child because these girls will be married immediately after elementary school. In fact older women in the Maasai community participate joyfully in preparing their daughters for forced marriages. This shows that women in this community are in solidarity with the cultural norm of early and forced marriages of their girls. As if forced marriage was not enough, Maasai women still demonstrate cultural solidarity through female genital mutilation. This context relates to women sexual practice in the society. In an effort to curb free expression of womans sexual desires, the Maasai community chooses to perform this rude(a) act of mutilating their girls. Unfortunately, older women are the ones at the forefront in organizing for these initiation ceremonies as a show of love for their culture (Llewlyn 230). In this regard, one can appreciate the fact that culture plays a significant role in influencing norms of men and women in different social settings. In this case, a strict solidarity to their culture influences Maasai women into perpetrating primitive and harmful cultural practices. Brettell and Sargent Culture, Sexuality and the Body The excerpt on Maasai women fits with Brettell and Sargents essay on culture, sexuality and the body in inter-cultural perspective. Based on the primary reading, we acknowledged the fact that Maasai community controls sexuality of women in their societies. The aspect of early and forc